How have countries forged their anti-corruption policies? In the last two decades, diverse national governments have driven convergence processes to public integrity as a framework for systematizing structures and instruments for corruption prevention and combatting (D’Alterio, 2017; Doig & McIvor, 2003; Heywood & Kirby, 2020; Huberts, 2018; Huberts et al., 2014). Despite this policy diffusion representing an isomorphic process, integrity indexes indicate that resulting national systems have presented significant ‘mismatches’ to the standards that founded them (ERCAS, 2024; GDB Initiative, 2024; OECD, 2024).

Public integrity as a framework for anti-corruption systems and the trajectory and contradictions of resulting national systems still need to be explored more in the literature. This paper aims to contribute to reducing this gap and represents a part of an ongoing research project to develop a panel on anti-corruption systems in Lusophone countries. We argue that countries’ political and institutional dynamics affect their converging processes to the public integrity framework (as well as to any other one), resulting in national systems with the abovementioned mismatches. This paper represents one of our first efforts to test this supposition for establishing and refining our panel’s general theoretical proposal and research design.

Here, we go deep into the Brazilian case, assuming the investigation of this Lusophone country will probably be fruitful for our goals. Work on corruption-fighting in Brazil indicates a strong culture of scandal that has marked its political context, generating highly positive feedback to anti-corruption ‘protagonists,’ as well as the existence of soft spots in its anti-corruption institutional domain, making it possible to explore them for power interests. This political and institutional environment has driven and allowed key actors to adopt strategies in designing processes of anti-corruption policies to gain power and reputation (Da Ros & Taylor, 2022; Oliveira Júnior, 2019; Oliveira Júnior & Fonseca, 2024).

We adopt a theoretical proposal combining the institutional analysis and development (IAD) perspective with a causal-theory-testing (CTT) scheme (Beach & Pedersen, 2013; Jacobs, 2015; Schimmelfennig, 2015; van der Heijden et al., 2019). First, it draws on work that assumes policy diffusion and convergence as results of isomorphic forces based on the legitimacy of beliefs, structures, and practices in an organizational field that ‘imposes’ a certain logic of appropriateness (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991; Marsh & Sharman, 2009; Radaelli, 2000). Secondly, it considers the centrality of power and ambiguity in policy processes and institutional trajectories (Allison & Zelikow, 1999; Jackson, 2005; Mahoney & Thelen, 2010).

Adopting the analytical proposal of Oliveira Júnior and Fonseca (2024), based on Beach and Pedersen (2013), Falleti and Lynch (2009), Mahoney (2016), and Zittoun (2014), this paper scheme can be represented by the formula ‘I (international standards as input) → M (political-institutional dynamics as causal mechanism) → O (mismatches as outcome), where the causal mechanism ‘M’ comprises key actors’ strategies (S) as the independent variable and the political context (C) and institutions’ features (F) as the intervenient ones, resulting in the final formula ‘I → (S → C + F) → O.’

The research design in this first paper adopts a causal pathway strategy for study cases with content analysis limited, at this time, to documentary techniques (Bardin, 2013; Cellard, 1997; Gerring & Cojocaru, 2016; Weller & Barnes, 2014). This strategy also considers insights from methodologies proposed by Beach and Pedersen (2013), Schiffers and Plümer (2024), and van der Heijden et al. (2019) for causal investigations. Its corpus comprises the international standards that have influenced the Brazilian system, formal regulations related to such a system, publications on websites of free Press and government bodies, and the documentation on formulation processes of these regulations, which can provide evidence of their sources, fundamentals, and justifications, as well as can identify key actors and their preferences and strategies.

Here, the data gathering, analysis, and discussion of findings were limited to identifying policy sources adopted in Brazil and mismatches of its primary public integrity system toward them, regarding they represent the input and outcome sides of the causal formula. This reduced application is justified because this paper aims to present and discuss the first proposal of the theoretical framework and research design expected to be integrated into the panel mentioned above.

Even though this paper’s results are preliminary, through findings related to the input ‘I’ and outcome ‘O’ sides of our formula, it is possible to indicate that the OECD framework represents Brazil's primary source of standards. At the same time, the main Brazilian public integrity system presents mismatches to its source in many points related to the scope, level/units of intervention, set of violations, and ethical-cultural promotion. These first findings reveal some clues about political-institutional dynamics in the causal pathway of the Brazilian government’s convergence process to international public integrity frameworks.

Through the studies to be carried out in continuity with this paper, the causal mechanism ‘M’ will be explored by observing the proposed theoretical model and research design to provide the inferences and to trace the test strength to examine the causal theoretical proposal. By studying the Brazilian case, this and subsequent papers’ design, findings, and discussions are expected to be fruitful for the literature on anti-corruption and public integrity policy processes and causal pathway analyses focused on political and institutional dynamics.

This paper is divided into five sections. Firstly, we discuss public integrity as a policy subsystem framework aimed at defining its main analytical components. Secondly, we present our theoretical proposal focused on policy diffusion and convergence as results of isomorphic forces and the centrality of power and ambiguity in policy processes and institutional trajectories. In the next section, we show the main points and steps of our causal pathway research design adopted to gather and analyze data on the case study of Brazil. Then, we present and explore the findings of the input (I) and outcome (O) sides of our ‘I → M → O’ causal formula, followed by a discussion of the implications of such first results and the indications of the next steps.

Corruption continues to be a long-standing obstacle in the South African national public arena, despite determined efforts to address it. Some of the efforts include the existence of over 19 policies, legislations and strategic plans,as well as constitutional and administrative oversight and institutions such as the Public Protector, the Special Investigative Unit, and the National Prosecution Authority. Despite numerous strategies to mitigate this risk, there is still a need to understand the negative and positive effects of these mitigation measures. The study adopted a qualitative research paradigm, grounded in an interpretive research philosophy, and used both primary and secondary data sources. The data is analysed and presented through a thematic analytic technique. This study provides an overview of the experiences of experts in the ongoing fight against corruption inside the governmental institutions of the country. Utilising qualitative research methodologies such as interviews and focus groups, we analyse the viewpoints of a wide array of specialists involved in anti-corruption efforts. Our investigation uncovers an intricate terrain marked by structural obstacles, institutional weaknesses, and deeply rooted patterns of corruption. Political meddling, insufficient resources, and legal loopholes are recognised by experts as major obstacles to making progress. Nevertheless, at the centre of these difficulties, our research also reveals instances of achievement and perseverance, demonstrating inventive tactics and cooperative endeavours that have resulted in favourable results. This article provides useful lessons and ideas for enhancing anti-corruption measures in South Africa by combining expert insights. Our research findings make a valuable contribution to the wider discussion on governance and integrity. They provide important information for policy discussions and advocacy campaigns that attempt to promote openness, accountability, and ethical leadership in public administration.