Conference Agenda

Claudia Goldin showed that, as part of the structural transformation process, female labour participation rates (FLPRs) tend to peak in low-income countries where agriculture predominates, decline in middle-income countries with a growing industrial sector, and rise again in high-income countries with a service-oriented economy. The main hypothesis to explain the decline of FLPRs in middle-income countries is that this pattern is driven by the expansion of industrial activities in some regions of these countries, since jobs in this sector are typically performed by men. This descriptive paper evaluates that specific hypothesis of the U-shaped feminization theory. The analysis uses microdata from Mexico, the country with the highest share of industrial jobs in Latin America and one of the lowest FLPRs in the region. The empirical strategy relies on probit regressions to estimate women’s likelihood of participating in the workforce depending on the share of jobs in agriculture, industry, and services in the municipality where they reside. The analysis is based on a repeated cross-sectional dataset obtained from household surveys conducted between 2005 and 2019. After controlling for individual, household, and municipal characteristics, the regression results show that women’s likelihood of working increases as the share of jobs in the industrial sector is higher, it increases even more in service-oriented regions, but it declines in municipalities with a high share of agricultural jobs. An exploratory data analysis indicates that one of the main reasons why women living in agricultural regions of Mexico are not working is because there are no jobs in their place of residence. This evidence suggests that one of the drivers behind the low FLPRs in Mexico could be the lack of labour demand for women in the agricultural sector. Hence, this paper finds that in Mexico there is an upward trend between FLPRs and different stages of economic development across regions of the same country. This represents new evidence for the literature, as the only study following a similar methodology found a U-shaped pattern between FLPRs and different levels of economic development across regions of South Africa. To conclude, the study presents the sectoral distribution of the female labour force across countries. This analysis shows that some upper-middle-income countries like South Africa, Peru, Turkey, and Indonesia are showing the U-shaped pattern within the country, while others like Mexico, Malaysia, Colombia, and China, are exhibiting an upward trend.

The persistence of gender inequality, particularly in the labour market, despite considerable global efforts to close gender gaps, underscores the ongoing need to develop adequate metrics to track and address these disparities. Gender equality research is expanding (Belingheri et al., 2021), and gender-relevant or -disaggregated data is being collected more systematically (Bonfert et al., 2023), enabling the development of multiple indices to measure gender equality (e.g., the Gender Development Index and the European Index of Gender Equality). However, these measurements often prioritize broad international comparisons, overlooking local policy contexts and the specific needs of policymakers and organizations seeking actionable knowledge and evidence.

In this context, identifying the appropriate theoretical framework, data, and methodology to construct such a metric is paramount. This paper outlines the steps involved in developing the Australian Gender Equality @ Work Index.

The index was built through an iterative process designed to balance academic rigor with data availability and policy relevance. We adopted a threefold approach to define the scope of the index:

1. A robust theoretical framework was developed by integrating multidisciplinary knowledge from labour economics, sociology of work, political economy, and industrial relations. This framework was further refined through a quasi-systematic review of gender equality indices to better understand the metrics and methods commonly used and to identify existing gaps.

2. A comprehensive data audit was conducted to assess the feasibility of capturing the dimensions outlined in the theoretical framework.

3. Stakeholder and expert consultations were carried out to validate our approach and align it with the needs of policymakers.

As a result, we adopted a nine-dimension index, with each dimension represented by at least two variables that can be tracked over time. The index was compiled using a combination of parity indices and dissimilarity measures, and its robustness was tested using multiple validation techniques (eg. Monte Carlo simulations). Our findings indicate a slow overall change in gender inequality in the Australian labour market over the past decade. The primary drivers of gender inequality are labour market segmentation and disparities in work and care hours. This metric, therefore, provides valuable insights for identifying key policy levers to promote gender equality in the workforce.

Although this index is designed for Australia, this paper discusses how it can be adapted to track gender inequalities in other contexts, particularly in developing economies characterized by high informality.

Existing literature emphasizes the transformative potential of digitalization in reshaping labor markets and advancing gender equity. Studies suggest that digital tools and automation can disrupt traditional gendered divisions of labor, opening new opportunities for women in leadership, entrepreneurship, and technical roles (UNWOMEN, 2020; OECD, 2018). However, evidence also indicates that digitalization can reinforce existing inequalities when structural barriers, such as unequal access to digital skills and technologies, remain unaddressed (Howcroft & Rubery, 2018). In contexts marked by occupational segregation, digital transformation may perpetuate stereotypes that associate women with specific types of work, limiting their integration into high-skill, high-growth sectors (Kohlrausch & Weber, 2020). This dual-edged nature of digitalization calls for sector-specific and gender-sensitive analyses to understand its varied impacts on women's employment and economic empowerment.

Against this backdrop, this study explores the relationship between digitalization and women’s work in two key sectors in Turkey: tourism and manufacturing. How does digitalization influence gender roles in these sectors, and to what extent does it create opportunities for women to engage in skilled and leadership roles? The research is based on field studies conducted in regions with significant SME activity, analyzing both the opportunities and constraints digital transformation presents for women in these industries.

Findings from the tourism sector indicate that digitalization, particularly in functions like social media management and reservations, has made women more visible in customer-facing and managerial roles. Digital tools have also contributed to a modest rise in women entrepreneurs. In manufacturing, digitalization has enabled educated women to access white-collar and managerial positions, though traditional roles tied to physical labor remain largely male-dominated.

This paper highlights the nuanced interplay between digitalization and gender dynamics, emphasizing the need for inclusive digital policies to bridge skill gaps, counter occupational segregation, and enhance women's visibility across sectors. The study aims to inform broader discussions on gender-sensitive digitalization strategies, contributing actionable insights for equitable SME development in emerging economies.

Despite a 27% increase in women's higher education enrolment between 2015-2023 in India, female labour force participation has declined from 26% to 19.7%, creating an urgent need to examine structural, cultural, and technological barriers. This research analyses secondary data from the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023-24, and digital economy metrics, revealing that only 33% of women have meaningful digital access, with rural-urban disparities reaching 45%. The study leverages findings from extensive literature that highlight persistent gender inequities in India’s labour market despite advancements in education. Researchers like Chatterjee et al. and Mahmood et al. emphasize the structural and social factors that hinder women’s economic participation, such as patriarchal norms and inadequate digital infrastructure. By employing time-series analysis, econometric modelling, and machine learning algorithms, the research quantifies how post-pandemic digital transformation has altered employment patterns, particularly affecting 68% of women workers in informal sectors. The newly developed Economic Opportunity Index, calibrated across 640 districts, demonstrates that regions with higher digital penetration (>60%) show a 2.3x higher female workforce participation rate. Preliminary findings indicate that districts with integrated digital payment systems and e-commerce platforms report a 37% higher female entrepreneurship rate. Additionally, the post-pandemic recovery has been asymmetric, with digitally-enabled sectors showing 42% higher female employment retention compared to traditional sectors. However, implementation gaps in digital skilling programs affect 73% of potential women workers, particularly in tier-2 and tier-3 cities, where digital infrastructure lags by 52% compared to metropolitan areas. Insights from Bhalla & Kaur and Khanna suggest that addressing socio-cultural barriers and enhancing access to technology are pivotal for overcoming these disparities. This research advances the academic discourse by quantifying the digital divide's impact on female employment, showing that a 10% increase in digital accessibility correlates with a 3.2% rise in formal sector participation. The findings emphasize that achieving the targeted 45% female labour force participation by 2030 requires a threefold increase in digital infrastructure investment, particularly in the 324 districts identified as digital deserts. Policy reforms focusing on women-centric digital entrepreneurship initiatives, shown to have an 89% success rate in pilot programs, are also crucial for bridging the gender employment gap and fostering inclusive economic growth.