Conference Agenda

On September 21, 2022, the Philippine Supreme Court rendered a landmark decision in Ditiangkin et.al. versus Lazada E-Services Philippines Inc. et. Al (G.R. No. 246892). In this case, the complainants filed a case for illegal dismissal when they were no longer given work assignments by Lazada. Lazada argued that it is not liable for illegal dismissal since the complainants were allegedly not employees, but only independent contractors. The Philippine Supreme Court ruled in favor of the and declared that they are regular employees of Lazada.

This paper will examine the impact of the Supreme Court’s ruling on digital workers, focusing on the responses of the digital platforms’ representatives and the riders themselves. It is possible that these digital platforms may have begun to revise their labor practices to align with the Supreme Court ruling.

Through qualitative interviews with riders and digital platform representatives, this study will highlight their observations and lived experiences after the Supreme Court ruling was rendered in 2022.

Research Methodology

The researcher will conduct semi-structured qualitative interviews with a sample of digital workers (riders) from various platforms (e.g., Grab, Foodpanda, etc.) and the representatives from these platforms. This will allow the researcher to understand the personal experiences, perceptions of the riders on the Supreme Court ruling, and any changes they have observed in their working conditions. A set of open-ended questions will be prepared to address the research questions and allow for in-depth discussion. The interviews will be recorded with consent of the interviewees for detailed analysis. Their responses will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes, patterns, and insights that may emerge from the narratives of the participants. The researcher will also review relevant legal documents, company policy changes, and government regulations that have been enacted after the Supreme Court ruling to help triangulate the findings from the interviews by comparing the riders' experiences with official policies and practices. The researcher will also conduct focus group discussions with groups of riders to facilitate conversation and gather diverse perspectives. This will encourage participants to interact and share insights based on each other's experiences, potentially revealing issues that may not surface in individual interviews.

This study examines occupational safety and health (OSH) risks linked to dynamic pricing models and algorithmic management (AM) in platform work, with a focus on food delivery platforms. It contributes to International Labour Organization (ILO) discussions on safe working environments (ILO, 1981, 2006, 2023) by highlighting how algorithm-driven wage structures and performance incentives impact worker safety, well-being, and risk-taking behaviours.

Drawing on labour economics, OSH frameworks, and regulatory theory, this study positions earnings volatility as an occupational hazard—a dimension largely overlooked in research on AM, compensation structures, and platform work safety (Gregory, 2021; Christie & Ward, 2023; Bérastégui, 2021; Rosenblat & Stark, 2016). While the EU Platform Work Directive focuses on algorithmic transparency and worker classification, it fails to address the OSH risks associated with dynamic pricing (European Commission, 2023). To bridge this gap, the study introduces the “algorithmic risk cycle”, demonstrating how pricing fluctuations incentivise unsafe behaviours, such as speeding, excessive working hours, and skipping rest breaks. This approach broadens the discussion beyond wage fairness and algorithmic surveillance to include direct safety risks.

Informed by Heiland (2022), the study differentiates between shift-based and flexible scheduling models. Research indicates that shift-based workers experience high-intensity workloads during peak hours, exacerbating stress and accident risks (Boniardi et al., 2024; Piasna & Drahokoupil, 2021). Conversely, flexible workers face economic uncertainty, leading them to extend work hours to compensate for earnings instability—resulting in fatigue and increased health risks (Arlinghaus et al., 2019; Pulignano et al., 2021).

The study addresses three critical questions:

1. How do shift-based and flexible scheduling models impact worker OSH?

2. What are the regulatory limitations in addressing OSH risks linked to dynamic pricing and AM?

3. How can labour and OSH policy frameworks be adapted to better protect platform workers?

Using a qualitative approach, the study draws on 30 in-depth interviews with food delivery workers in Serbia, employed by Glovo (shift-based) and Wolt (flexible scheduling). It also includes an analysis of platform policies on wage incentives, risk exposure, and the use of AM in work governance, investigating how algorithmic decision-making structures regulate labour supply and shape OSH risks. Findings indicate that earnings uncertainty sustains high labour supply elasticity, pressuring workers into risky behaviours with minimal insurance protections (Bérastégui, 2021).

To address these risks, the study proposes a regulatory model integrating real-time wage stabilisation, risk-based algorithmic audits, and expanded OSH regulations that recognise earnings volatility as an occupational hazard.

Introduction

Advancements in digital technologies have introduced both opportunities and challenges for the labor market, particularly in shaping work environments. In the same period, the Japanese government initiated labor market reforms under Hatarakikata Kaikaku in 2018, emphasizing the acceptance of flexible work styles and the promotion of side jobs. While these reforms provide greater autonomy, they have also led to an increase in freelance and non-standard employment arrangements. Historically, Japan's occupational health and safety protections have primarily covered employed workers, leaving independent workers with fewer safeguards. This gap raises concerns about whether existing labor policies and social security measures adequately protect all workers, ensuring that no one is left behind.

Research Question

This study explores the relationship between gig work experience and mental health, as well as its implications for social security. Specifically, it investigates whether engaging in gig work is associated with higher psychological distress and reduced access to social protection. This research aligns with Track II (2), examining how digitalization has led to precarious work, invisible labor controls, and the challenges in ensuring adequate worker protections.

Methodology

This study employs an epidemiological approach based on an online survey conducted in March 2023. The survey targeted 3,185 Japanese men and women aged 18–65, collecting data on demographics, employment status, socioeconomic conditions, health, and social security access. Psychological distress was measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale-6 (K6).

Employment status was categorized into seven groups: (1) standard workers, (2) non-standard workers, (3) self-employed individuals, (4) standard workers engaged in gig work, (5) non-standard workers engaged in gig work, (6) self-employed individuals engaged in gig work, and (7) full-time gig workers. Participants were also asked about their experience in gig work. Logistic regression analysis was performed using high psychological distress (K6 score >10) as the dependent variable, with propensity score matching applied in the final analysis. Further analysis of social security implications will be reported.

Findings

The results indicate that standard workers with gig work experience exhibited higher psychological distress. Across employment categories, those with gig work experience consistently reported greater distress levels compared to their counterparts without gig work experience. While digitalization has expanded work flexibility and access to multiple jobs, it also introduces new occupational health risks, particularly in roles with invisible work environments with longer working hours. These findings highlight the need for updated occupational health policies and stronger social security measures to protect gig workers.

In recent years, informal workers engaged in platform-based gig work have leveraged social media as part of their labour processes, including for the promotion and negotiation of their services, as well as for organisation and mobilisation purposes. This paper combines insights generated by two qualitative studies to create a thorough understanding of how informal workers are using digital technologies to meet their employment goals. The main research question that the paper aims to answer is: How do informal workers use social media in different parts of their labour processes?

The first study is the author’s doctoral thesis, which used a grounded theory methodology to develop three case studies of protests by platform-based motorcycle taxi drivers in Indonesia between 2018 and 2020. Drawing from evidence from semi-structured interviews, online observations on Facebook and WhatsApp, and document analysis, the research finds that the networked relationships on social media (NRSM) that drivers formed and institutionalised were a formidable reservoir of support for collective action when combined with alliance building.

The second study was conducted by the author during the COVID-19 pandemic, examining how platform-based motorcycle taxi drivers and domestic workers in Indonesia accessed work through social media when platforms were not allowed to operate. Data from semi-structured interviews and online observations on Twitter (now X) and a digital public directory were analysed using a coding procedure that was largely based on grounded theory. The research finds that workers were dependent on networked relationships to promote their services and establish their reputations, with reviews, referrals, and engagement on platforms facilitating these trust-based interactions.

The two studies contribute to the dearth of literature on how informal workers are using the internet for their labour processes. They also introduce the lens of informality to the study of platform workers in developing countries. Theoretically, each research contributes by 1) theorising NRSM of informal workers as an institutional arrangement centred around the idea of social ties for the purposes of organisation and mobilisation and 2) extending NRSM to understand how informal workers use social media to establish trust and credibility for their economic activities.

The paper aims to challenge the platform-centric perspective of gig work by demonstrating that informal workers have the capacity to create alternative institutions and exercise their agency. However, while social media allowed for short-term successes, these networks were transient and lacked the structural power to transform precarity into sustained work opportunities and long-term mobilisation.

The landscape of employment is experiencing significant transformations due to digitalization, globalization, and the emergence of new job formats. In India, a substantial 93% of the workforce is engaged in the informal economy, with transport workers making up a notable portion of this demographic. Estimates indicate that over 20 million transport workers in India operate within the informal sector, including those in conventional transport roles (such as auto rickshaw and taxi drivers) and gig economy workers (such as drivers for Ola, Uber, and Rapido). These workers encounter numerous challenges, including low wages, job instability, and inadequate social protections. Although the 2020 Code on Social Security aims to extend protections to gig workers, the current institutional framework is insufficient to address their needs.

This paper examines whether India requires a holistic "mobility package," similar to the European Union's approach, to safeguard transport workers and other informal sector employees. It delves into how labor and social protections can be extended to informal workers, especially considering the proliferation of platform work and other new forms of informal employment. The study also assesses the role of multi-stakeholder negotiations, the effectiveness of the 2020 Code on Social Security, and the institutional reforms necessary to aid the transition of informal workers, including transport workers, into the formal economy.

Utilizing a qualitative methodology, the research incorporates case studies and interviews with key stakeholders, such as transport workers, union leaders (e.g., All India Gig Workers Union), policymakers, and platform representatives. The study evaluates the obstacles in implementing the 2020 Code, its potential to benefit gig workers, and how collective bargaining can enhance the position of informal workers in the transport sector.

The findings indicate that while the 2020 Code signifies progress, its implementation is hindered by bureaucratic delays and weak enforcement mechanisms. However, instances like the Kolkata Taxi Association's successful negotiations for improved fares and working conditions demonstrate the potential of multi-stakeholder bargaining to enhance the working conditions of transport workers. These findings emphasize that labor market institutions must adapt to effectively protect informal workers amid digitalization and the rise of platform work. This paper contributes to the discussion on labor market institutions by advocating for a mobility package tailored to India’s informal transport workers. It argues that inclusive, adaptable labor institutions, backed by robust enforcement mechanisms, are crucial for ensuring decent work and facilitating the transition of informal workers, particularly transport workers, into the formal economy.