Current Trends and Perspectives of Anti-Doping Research
Chair(s): Dreiskaemper, Dennis (TU Dortmund), Petróczi, Andrea (Kingston University, London, UK)
FRAMEWORK
Anti-doping work and research continually evolve, responding to new challenges and innovations within sport and society (such as emerging substances and methods) while also anticipating future developments, such as neuro-doping. This invited symposium, led by Dennis Dreiskämper, features four perspectives on current anti-doping challenges.
As an invited co-host, Andrea Petróczi starts with a paradoxical yet essential approach of advancing anti-doping by looking back and argues for the need to revisit foundational principles and concepts often taken for granted. Without this clarity and reinforcement, progress risks being built on unstable ground, akin to constructing on quicksand. By critically exploring the origins, functions, and implications of the ‘spirit of sport, she offers explanation for the ‘spirit of sport’ from a renewed perspective, encouraging thoughtful reflection to ensure sustainable advancement.
From an economically oriented perspective to make doping control process more efficient and cost-effective, Daniel Westmattelmann explores the opportunities and challenges associated with implementing a Remote Sampling System in anti-doping efforts, emphasizing the importance of maintaining high legitimacy in the eyes of both athletes and control officers. The widespread use of nutritional supplements among athletes presents a challenge for regulators due to a high risk of unintentional anti-doping rule violations through contamination. It is also widely debated whether and how experiences with nutrition supplement use increases the risk for intentional doping. Annalena Veltmaat examines athletes’ perceptions of performance-enhancing practices through strategic use of nutritional supplements with an innovative methodological approach, employing vignettes to uncover valuable insights into athletes’ attitudes and behavioral drivers toward supplementation. Aligned with this concern, Nadja Walter introduces three projects on Anti-doping education. The new EU-funded project “Anti-Dop”, which aims to prevent unintentional doping caused by nutritional supplements, the project No2Doping which focusses on teaching athletes values and having them apply their values and the VIRAL project that deals with athletes actively engaging with the learning content via new technology.
These results, progressive perspectives and their implications for anti-doping practices and research are discussed among the presenters, with perspectives from Marc Wonneberger, head of the German Federal Institute of Sport Sciences (BISp), who will address practical and political dimensions, and Andrea Petróczi, who will offer an international outlook on anti-doping research.
Beiträge des Symposiums
From Ideals to Actions: Lessons from the Evolution of the ‘Spirit of Sport’ in the World Anti-Doping Code
Petróczi, Andrea1, Thrower, Sam N.2, Reinold, Marcel3
1Kingston University, London, UK, 2Oxford Brookes University, UK, 3Norway's Arctic University
INTRODUCTION
The ‘spirit of sport’ argument asserts that performance-enhancing substances undermine sport’s intrinsic values. The World Anti-Doping Code (WADC) uses this principle both as a broader philosophical foundation and as a criterion for adding substances to the Prohibited List. Whilst the former has been widely accepted, the latter has faced criticism but remained intact through code revisions over the past 20 years. With the introduction of the International Standard for Education in 2021, the ‘spirit of sport’—framed in the WADC as the values of sport—has taken on a third role as the foundation for values-based education. This evolving function raises questions about the origins and implications of the „spirit of sport“ concept.
METHODS
A qualitative case study design was used to examine (1) the introduction of the ‘spirit of sport’ into the WADC, (2) its conceptual origins, and (3) its impact—both intended and unintended—on global anti-doping governance. We focused on the drafting of the first WADC (2000–2003), employing thematic analysis of multiple data sources, including official documents from the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) and the International Olympic Committee (e.g., board minutes, committee minutes, WADC drafts) and in-depth interviews with key stakeholders (n = 10) involved in early anti-doping policies, WADA’s formation and creating the first WADC.
RESULTS
Our preliminary results highlight two key dynamics. Despite its importance and influence, the origins and inclusion process of the spirit of sport principles in the WADC remain elusive, which impacts its perceived global legitimacy. As currently conceptualised by an epistemic community of ethicists and policy makers, it reflects a normative societal ideal rather than a comprehensive framework integrating personal and societal values. This disconnect poses challenges for using the “spirit of sport” as a basis for anti-doping education, as it does not adequately account for the link between an athlete's personal values and the broader societal values of sport.
DISCUSSION AND APPLIED IMPLICATIONS
In the spirit of being athlete-centred, rethinking the “values of sport” to balance normative societal ideals with practical, personal values that athletes prioritise is warranted. This may involve creating a robust, globally relevant definition of the “spirit of sport“ – engaging in a cross-disciplinary dialogue, integrating diverse perspectives as well as critical voices, to ensure it resonates with diverse stakeholders globally, along with considering rethinking the values of sport component for mandatory education, making the “spirit of sport” a meaningful and actionable concept for athletes.
When they don’t come around – Opportunities and challenges of implementing a Remote Sampling System in anti-doping work
Westmattelmann, Daniel, Stoffers, Benedikt
Universität Münster
INTRODUCTION
Effective anti-doping testing is crucial for maintaining fairness and integrity in sports. The COVID-19 pandemic substantially disrupted traditional in-person testing processes, prompting the introduction of Remote Sampling Systems (RSS) for contactless doping sample collection (Trinks et al., 2024). However, successful adoption of RSS depends on understanding user perceptions and acceptance factors (Stoffers et al., 2023).
METHODS
A quantitative study employing structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and multi-group analyses (MGA) examined factors influencing athletes’ (n = 132) and doping control officers’ (DCOs, n = 107) legitimacy perceptions and attitudes towards RSS (Dash & Paul, 2021). The analysis explored predictors such as perceived benefits, transparency, trust in technology, and various risk dimensions (performance, privacy, psychological) (2019; Woolway et al., 2020).
RESULTS
SEM analyses indicated strong predictive power for legitimacy (Athletes: R2 = 74.2 %; DCOs: R2 = 63.8 %) and attitudes towards RSS (Athletes: R2 = 56.6 %; DCOs: R2 = 56.1 %). Transparency significantly influenced trust in technology, which subsequently impacted perceived benefits and reduced risk perceptions for both groups. MGA revealed critical differences: athletes demonstrated significantly stronger negative associations between performance risk and legitimacy compared to DCOs. Additionally, legitimacy had a notably higher positive effect on attitudes among athletes.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The findings underscore the importance of transparency and trust in technology to enhance RSS acceptance. The differentiated impact of risk perceptions suggests that anti-doping organizations should prioritize mitigating performance-related concerns among athletes and strengthening trust among DCOs. Practical recommendations include user-specific communication strategies, targeted training, and pilot programs to refine RSS implementation, fostering broader legitimacy and positive attitudes across user groups.
LITERATURE
Dash, G., & Paul, J. (2021). CB-SEM vs PLS-SEM methods for research in social sciences and technology forecasting. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173, 121092.
Stoffers, B., Lanfer, J., Westmattelmann, D., & Schewe, G. (2023). One app to test them all-opportunities and challenges of implementing a remote sampling system in anti-doping work. In Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Information Systems.
Trinks, S., Braun, K., Gotzmann, A., Bunthoff, E., & Mueser, D. (2024). Dried blood spots via remote testing as a possible future application in the doping control process. Drug Testing and Analysis. Woolway, T., Lazuras, L., Barkoukis, V., & Petróczi, A. (2020). “Doing what is right and doing it right”: a mapping review of athletes' perception of anti-doping legitimacy. International Journal of Drug Policy, 84, 102865.
Personal limits: A mixed-method analysis of athletes’ views on using dietary supplements for performance enhancement
Veltmaat, Annalena1, Dreiskaemper, Dennis1, Elbe, Anne-Marie2, Barkoukis, Vasileios3, Bondarev, Dmitri4, Lazuras, Lambros5, Mallia, Luca6, Zelli, Arnaldo6, Petróczi, Andrea7
1TU Dortmund, 2Uni Leipzig, 3Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, 4Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russian Federation, 5Sheffield Hallam University, UK, 6University of Rome ‘Foro Italico’, Rome, Italy, 7Kingston University, London, UK
BACKGROUND
The use of nutritional supplements for performance enhancement is widely discussed in relation to doping behaviour, with various perspectives on their relationship (Hurst et al., 2023). This study examines where and how athletes draw the line, within the anti-doping rules, on the personally acceptable use of supplements, and whether these views are linked to their cultural, demographic, or sporting levels.
METHODS
As part of a large project called SMART (Sense-Making in Anti-doping Reasoning Training” (SMART) project), a mixed-method research design was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative analyses of the same data. Large-scale survey data (N = 1,276) were collected in Germany, Greece, Italy, Russia, and the UK from active athletes, exercisers, and non-athletic individuals. Participants responded to a hypothetical scenario involving a dilemma about the use of legal supplements. Responses were first coded based on whether participants advised the protagonist to take the supplement. Scores were then assigned to quantify the level of leniency (from ‘definite yes’ to ‘definite no’) (Sandelowski et al., 2009). Phase two involved separate analyses: the quantitative analysis examined associations between recommendations and demographic factors (e.g., gender, cultural ‘tightness’), while the qualitative analysis identified recurring themes in participants’ reasoning and perceptions of the protagonist’s obligations regarding performance enhancement.
RESULTS
Nearly half of the respondents (47.2 %) suggested not taking the supplements, while 26.3 % offered no clear advice. No significant correlation between age and the grade of recommendation (r = -0.028, p = .335), and no gender differences were observed in the overall sample. National/international competitive athletes displayed the most permissive stances. Further, recommendations varied across countries. The second qualitative analysis identified four main themes: (1) negative effects of taking supplements, (2) incentives and reasons for taking supplements, (3) self-examination and introspection, and (4) taking further action.
DISCUSSION
The variability in recommendations and the diverse lines of argumentation from participants with different backgrounds highlight the range of perspectives athletes hold regarding legal performance enhancement. Personal limits are highly individualised, situated, and context-dependent, underscoring the need for anti-doping education to consider these subjective boundaries and decision-making processes beyond regulatory frameworks.
LITERATURE
Hurst, P., Schiphof-Godart, L., Kavussanu, M., Barkoukis, V., Petróczi, A., & Ring, C. (2023). Are dietary supplement users more likely to dope than non-users?: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The International journal on drug policy, 117, 104077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104077
Sandelowski, M., Voils, C. I., & Knafl, G. (2009). On quantitizing. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 3(3), 208−222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689809334210
From values-based interventions and virtual reality learning environments to individualized education programs for athlete support personnel – New approaches in doping prevention programs
Elbe, Anne-Marie1, Walter, Nadja1, Barkoukis, Vasileios2
1Uni Leipzig, 2Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Doping use constitutes one of the most important threats of sport integrity and an anti-doping violation has tremendous negative consequences for an athlete. The need for effective prevention programs is obvious and education has been discussed as the most important prevention approach (Barkoukis, 2015). Primary prevention through education at an early age is therefore key; however, educating young athletes about doping-related knowledge is deemed to be not sufficiently effective to minimize doping (Backhouse, 2015). Also, studies suggest that many athletes report low willingness to receive anti-doping education; especially males and young players (Skoufa et al., 2022). A possible explanation for this is that anti-doping education often focusses on traditional learning, e.g., traditional, lecture-like, one-way communication approaches. Approaches using new learning methods and technologies might be a way to tackle these issues. Moreover, the vital role and responsibilities of athlete support personnel (ASP, i.e., coaches, nutritionists, managers, medical doctors, sports psychologists, parents) in advising, guiding and motivating athletes could be an additional anti-doping education approach (Mazanov et al., 2013). This presentation will therefore focus on new approaches to doping prevention. No2Doping focusses on teaching athletes values and having them apply their values rather than providing them with anti-doping knowledge (Manges et al., 2022). Values-based education means “delivering activities that emphasize the development of an individual’s personal values and principles. It builds the learner's capacity to make decisions to behave ethically” (WADA, 2021, p.10). The VIRAL project focusses on having athletes actively engage with the learning content via new technology. By this, athletes set their own learning objectives, and engage in self-directed and independent learning while immersing themselves in virtual reality. Last but not least, ANTIDOP focusses on ASP and an innovative, individualized approach on how ASPs can support athletes with regard to preventing unintentional doping from nutritional supplements.
LITERATURE
Backhouse, S. (2015). Anti-doping education for athletes. In V. Møller, I. Waddington & J. Hoberman (Eds.), Handbook of Drugs and Sport (pp. 229–238.). Routledge.
Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Lucidi, F., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2015). Nutritional supplement and doping use in sport: Possible underlying social cognitive processes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(6), e582-e588.
Manges, T., Seidel, K., Walter, N., Schüler, T., & Elbe, A.-M. (2022). Answering the call for values-based anti-doping education – An evidence-informed intervention for elite adolescent athletes in Germany and Austria. Frontiers in Sports Active Living, 4,859153. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.859153.
Mazanov J., Backhouse S., & Connor J., Hemphill, D., & Quirk, F. (2013). Athlete support personnel and anti-doping: Knowledge, attitudes, and ethical stance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(5), pp. 846−856. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12084.
Skoufa, L., Daroglou, G., Loukovitis, A., Lunde, H., Guižauskaitė, G., & Barkoukis, V. (2022). Football players’ preferences for anti-doping education: a cross-country study. Performance Enhancement & Health, 10(1), 100217.
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). (2021). The International Standard for Education. https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/international_standard_ise_2021.pdf
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